**CINEMATOGRAPHY BY  DP GLEN MITKU**

First and foremost, we start by choosing the shot size.
**SHOT SIZE:**



- Establishing Shot (**ES**)
- Master Shot

**THE WIDE SHOT**

- Extreme Wide Shot (**EWS)**
- Wide Shot (**WS**)
- Full Shot (**FS**)
- Medium Wide Shot (**MWS**)

**THE MEDIUM SHOT**

- Medium Full Shot / Cowboy (**MFS**)
- Medium Shot (**MS**)

The Medium shot can be used:

- Voyeuristic effect
- Comedic effect 
- Romantic effect (Love)

**THE CLOSE UP**

- Medium Close-up Shot (**MCU**)
- Close-up Shot (**CU**)
- Extreme Close-up Shot (**ECU**)

The Close-up can be used:

- Informational Close-up
- Emotional Close-up
- Emotional and Informational Close-up
- Humorous Close-up

**Guide to Close-ups**

- **ASPECT RATIO** (aspect ratios such as 4:3, 1.43:1 are ideal for close-ups since they are squared and frame the subject perfectly, as opposed to wider aspect ratios such as 1.85:1 and 2.39:1 which include the background as well in the frame. Wider aspect ratios are ideal for asymmetrical close-ups, and if you want to include parts of the BG.

* **LENSES (the two main deciding factors in your lens choice should be; FOCAL LENGTH and DEPTH OF FIELD, shallow DOF, Deep DOF. Longer focal lengths 50mm and above tend to flatten the face, shorter focal lengths 28mm and below tend to distort the face.**

- **ANGLES & STAGING (you could use any camera angles to convey meaning to your close-up, CU shots in profile give a more objective perspective, shooting from the back of a car also creates a voyeuristic view.**

* **LIGHTING** (**Colored Lighting** is a great way to enhance the emotional qualities of the character and the scene, **Bokeh and Lens Flares** give the shot texture, **Under Lighting** is less natural and creates unsettling dramatic shadows, **Backlighting** can add a halo around the subject, **Top Lighting** can also obscure the eyes when you want to keep a character and their intentions a mystery. One way to light the eyes in a CU is to block the light everywhere else, or add an eyelight to further illuminate the eyes, and have catchlights to give a bit of spark.



Once the shot size is selected, next is composition / framing. 
**FRAMING:**

- Single Shot (Clean or Dirty) (It disconnects your characters)
- Two Shot
- Three Shot
- Four Shot
- Five Shot
- Crowd Shot
- Over The Shoulder Shot (**OTS**) (Connects your characters)

	\- Connect your characters (the visual presence or OTS).
	\- Disconnect your characters (cut to a Single or Push In to isolate).

- Point of View Shot (**POV**)
- Insert Shot (**I**)

Now that shot size, and composition are selected it’s time for the camera angles.
**CAMERA ANGLES:**

- Low Angle (**LA**)

	\- Convey Power
	\- Convey Vulnerability
	\- Power + Vulnerability

- High Angle (**HA**)

\- Narrative Driven; Can establish scale of a crowd, Can give context to a scene,  Usually shot at a shallow angle.
\- Emotional response [ Visceral HA]; Creates an emotional reaction, Can add tension to a scene, Shot at extreme angles.
\- Character driven; Can emphasize danger in a scene, Helps convey a character’s vulnerability.

- Overhead
- Dutch Angle

\- Identify (identify the moment, read through the script, find a moment that is unsettling or wrong).
\- Consider (consider the moment).

\- ENHANCE
	\- Degree of Tilt (the more the tilt the more unsettling the shot).
	\- Camera Height 
	\- Lens Choice (Focal Length)
	\- Depth of Field (DOF)

- Eye Level
- Shoulder Level
- Hip Level
- Knee Level
- Ground Level



Shot size, framing, camera angles, and now DOF.
**DEPTH OF FIELD / FOCUS / FOCAL LENGTH:**

- Deep Focus (**DF**)
- Shallow Focus (**SF**)
- Soft Focus
- Rack Focus (**RF**)

	\- Focused Direction (You control the eyes of the viewer).
	\- Layered Images (Because you have subjects at varying depths).
	\- Visual Storytelling (Shows reactions to things on and off screen).
	\- Economic Filmmaking (Saving time and money with fewer shots).
	\- Emotional Connection (Connecting the character emotionally).

- Split Diopter
- Tilt Shift

Knowing all the camera gear is another essential task of a Cinematographer.
**CAMERA GEAR / RIGS:**

- Handheld (Shoulder Rig, Easy Rig)
- Tripod / Sticks
- Pedestal
- Crane / Jib
- Overhead Rig
- Dolly (Slider, Cable Cam)
- Stabilizer (Steadicam, Glidecam, Gimbal)
- Snorricam / Body Cam / Body Mount / Chest Cam
- Vehicle Mount
- Drone
- Motion Control (Stop Motion, VFX)
- Underwater Housing

Every Cinematographer needs to move the camera with intent (Story is king, Always). 
**CAMERA MOVEMENT:**

- Static
- Pan (Left, Right)
- Whip Pan (Left, Right)
- Tilt (Up, Down)
- Push In (Dolly In)
- Pull Out (Dolly Out)
- Zoom (Slow Zoom Horror / Thriller)
- Crash Zoom
- Dolly Zoom

(Dolly In + Zoom Out: BG changes, FG still) 
(Dolly Out + Zoom In: BG same, FG changes) 
(consider also speed, and focal length, as well as BG, angles and lighting).

- Camera Roll
- Tracking Shot

	\- Location (Look at the location, you want a symbiotic relationship with    location when performing a tracking shot).
	\- Production Design (Incorporate Set Dressing and Props to your advantage)
	\- Blocking (Performance Blocking both with principal actors and extras)
\- CAMERA MOVEMENT
\- Speed (Move camera fast for action, move camera slow for a more ominous viewer feeling)
\- Stability (Shaky camera to feel uneasy, stable camera for a different emotional outcome).
		\- Duration (How long should the tracking shot run).

- Trucking Shot
- Arc Shot
- Boom Shot (Boom Up / Down)
- Random Movement / Camera Shake



**TRACKING SHOT:**

**TYPES OF MOVEMENT**

- DOLLY, movement is extremely smooth
- STEADICAM, extremely versatile and smooth
- CRANE / JIB, allows for extensive vertical movement
- DRONE, ever further versatility and height
- HANDHELD, can infuse energy and tension to a scene

LENS CHOICE

- **Telephoto,** will compress the space making a scene even more intense
- **Wide Lens**, will allow for more dynamic shots since it exaggerates movement

DEPTH OF FIELD

- **Shallow DOF**, isolates the character from the world around them
- **Deep DOF**, situates them in their surroundings

**FRAMING & CAMERA ANGLE**
You can mix any of the shot sizes, framing options and camera angles that best tells the story.

**BLOCKING & STAGING**
	Once the blocking and staging is decided, another great consideration to take is to            place the camera in front of or behind the characters. Frontal shots tend to convey power to the character, trucking laterally has a more objective vantage point of spectacle. SPEED also determines the feel of the tracking shot. You could also use the EYE TRACE to motivate movement.

**EDITING & DURATION**



**COMPOSITION:**

Simply put Composition is the arrangement of elements in an image: it is not only what you include in the frame, It’s the relationship between those elements that creates the overall meaning. COMPOSITION is all about directing the viewer's eye.
	**CONSIDER ASPECT RATIO**

- **POINTS** (use points to direct attention, popular technique in WS) points are often used in conjunction with **The Rule of Thirds**: the rule states that the subject of the frame should be placed in one of the four intersections of the vertical and horizontal thirds of the shot. Another compositional technique that uses points is **The Golden Triangle**; This is created when you draw a diagonal line from corner to corner, and then lines from the other two corners intersecting it at right angles, creating two balanced focal points. 

* **LINES** (lines are the fundamental building block of composition).

	\- Vertical Lines can suggest height and strength.
	\- Horizontal Lines can suggest distance and calm.
	\- Diagonals can add an off-tilted energy to a frame.
	\- Curved Lines can make more graceful compositions, peace.
	\- Leading Lines to pull the eye in a certain direction.

- **SHAPES** (make up our visual reality)

	\- Triangles
	\- Circles
	\- Squares
A Clean geometric shape can add a tidy and satisfying feeling to a frame, as if                                                      everything is in order. While irregular or organic shapes can feel more natural. SHAPES can also create FRAMES WITHIN FRAMES; giving the viewer a smaller area of focus within an image. These secondary frames can evoke anything from claustrophobia to comfort all depending on the shape, where it’s placed, and the context of the scene. 

- **TEXTURES & PATTERNS** (alongside shapes also help shape and inform how we read an image) TEXTURE is often achieved through the collaboration between Cinematographer and Production Designer.

Every Object has a TEXTURE
	\- Smooth
	\- Patterned
	\- Smooth and Patterned
	\- Light (lighting can add texture to an image)
	Texture can be used to make a subject pop from the BG or blend in with the BG.

	PATTERNS also play an important role in composition.
	-  Power and Control
	\- Harmony
	\- Insanity
	All ideas can be suggested with simple repetition.

- **SPACE** (space is crucial in composition, adds dimension to an image). 
  - POSITIVE SPACE is the area given to your subject.
  - NEGATIVE SPACE is the empty space around the subject. 

[ *The relationship between positive and negative space creates various ideas or moods. The larger the object in the frame the more importance it has. From EWS that leaves your subject isolated and vulnerable; to ECU that empowers them. Other than the amount of negative space the LOCATION also matters* ].

- Headroom is the amount of negative space above the subject’s head usually kept to a minimum. 
- Lead room / Looking room is the amount of negative space in front of the subject, which is usually much more than the amount behind them. (But breaking these rules can be just as effective).

[ *Filling the frame is a technique that gives the subject most or all positive space; a form of sensory overload that can create a sense of chaos, the opposite can be equally effective. A simplified frame can be soothing or even sad. These are all considerations of the 2D space of the frame* ].

- **DEPTH** (film is a two-dimensional medium representing 3D space, and the best way to accomplish this illusion is with DEPTH). We divide this space into three sections:

	\- Foreground
	\- Middle ground
	\- Background
	Each of these planes can be used to layer compositions that create hierarchies of meaning and relationships.

- SHALLOW FOCUS (isolates the subject from the other planes).
- RACK FOCUS (changing focus during a shot, draws our attention even further, if an object is in focus our eyes will prioritize it).
- DEEP FOCUS (referring to a large DOF, allows for multiple layers of attention). 

* **BALANCE** (the rule of thumb is that the frame should be balanced, a subject positioned at frame right with nothing on the left feels imbalanced, the same effect can happen with a FG subject with nothing in the BG). A technique to maining balance is **The Rule of Odds**; which states that when shooting multiple subjects it’s more visually pleasing for the group to be in odd numbers.

[ *The Golden Ratio also utilizes balance, and there are a few ways to use it in composition. Related to the Fibonacci sequence it is a ratio of 1:1.618 otherwise known as the number phi. If we draw a rectangle using the golden ratio, and continue to divide it with the same proportions, it creates what’s called The Golden Spiral. To utilize it for your work; If we take the height of a film frame, and draw a line using this ratio, we find an ideal location to place a subject’s eyes, or the horizon*].
BALANCE can also mean symmetry, Some filmmakers favor symmetrical framing in lieu of the rule of thirds of the golden ratio. Of course, there might be times where you want to make an audience uneasy with an **UNBALANCED FRAME**, remember that balance helps keep the image organized and stable, while an unbalanced frame can make the audience have the opposite reaction.

- **ANGLES** (angle is perspective, It’s about what we are seeing, it’s about how we are seeing it).

There are many opportunities to change camera angles to tell a story.

- HIGH ANGLE (HA) makes the subject seem small and less powerful.
- LOW ANGLE (LA) makes a subject seem strong and more powerful.
- OVERHEAD ANGLE gives a more detached and objective perspective. 
- DUTCH ANGLE titled to either side along the horizontal axis, like an unbalanced frame this strategy can make an audience feel on edge, or give a shot a kinetic energy.

* **COLOR & TONE** (the use of COLOR in a frame can also help direct the viewer’s eye, consider what various color schemes bring to the composition). 
  - Monochromatic
  - Analogous
  - Complementary
  - Triadic

All color schemes have great influence over how we read an image. Color can even overrule other methods of composition.
Another important aspect of composition is **TONE**, which refers to the brightness and contrast within an image. A brightly lit image has different tonal qualities than a dark image. Blending dark and light in the same image creates a more complicated message. Since our eyes are naturally drawn to the brightest part of an image, having your subject lit surrounded by darkness helps keep our focus on them. 

**180 DEGREE RULE:**

[The 180 degree rule refers to an imaginary straight line you draw between two subjects in a scene, you need to keep all of your camera setups on the same side of that line, or you cross the line].
You can bend the rule by adding a neutral shot, which is a cutaway to a shot that will reset the line. You can also cross the line with camera movement.



**FRAME RATES / FPS:**

Different Frames Rates impact Motion differently.

- Low Frame Rate / Fast Motion **UNDERCRANK** (Vintage Old Movies) (Choppy Motion, lack of frames, head exploding)

STEP PRINTING: Low FPS + Low Shutter Speed (High Shutter Angle) creates blurring and streaking effect. (Wong Kar-Wai, Gladiator).

- High Frame Rate / Slow Motion **OVERCRANK** (enables speed ramps, 300).

*CAPTURE RATE: The Frame Rate recorded by the camera.*
*PRESENTATION RATE: The Frame Rate the audience sees in the finished film.*

- *For normal speed; the Capture rate 24 FPS must equal the Presentation rate 24 FPS.*
- *For slow motion; the Capture rate 48 FPS must be greater than the Presentation rate 24 FPS.*
- *For fast motion: the Capture rate 12 FPS must be smaller than the Presentation rate 24 FPS.*

*NOTE: If you’re shooting sports or concerts Capture and present at a higher frame rate to have an overall smoother motion.*

**THE EXPOSURE TRIANGLE**

**SHUTTER SPEED / ANGLE:**

The Shutter Speed is the mechanism that determines how long light passes through the Shutter, controlling how long the frame is exposed to light. **Shutter Speed affects:**

- Exposure (Slower shutter speed equals more light / Faster shutter speed equals less light)
- Motion Blur (Slower shutter speed equals more motion Blur / Faster shutter speed equals less motion blur).

* SLOW SHUTTER SPEED / ABOVE 180’ (More Motion Blur, dreamy, flashback look) (The Usual Suspects 6 FPS and 360’,  The Wolf of Wall Street 12 FPS and 360’, this applies less with movies shot at a higher frame rate. The Hobbit 48 FPS and 270’).

- FAST SHUTTER SPEED / BELOW 180’ (Less Motion Blur, more Hyper Realistic, often used in action scenes).

180’ Shutter Rule: The Shutter Speed should be set to double the frame rate.



**APERTURE:**

*Aperture is the opening through which light travels and eventually hits the camera sensor. *

*The size of the Aperture’s opening not only affects the brightness of the image, but also directly affects the area of a shot that is in focus (also known as Depth of Field).*

*The smaller the Aperture the greater the DOF, conversely a large Aperture gives us a shallow DOF. The size of a camera’s Aperture is expressed in F-stops, depending on how open or closed it might be. *

*F-stops (1 / 1.4 / 2 / 2.8 / 4 / 5.6 / 8 / 11 / 16 / 22 / 32)*

- Small Aperture / Deep DOF (Step Down) (Needs a lot of light)
- Large Aperture / Shallow DOF (Step Up, Wide Open, Open Up) (Not much light required)
- Medium Aperture / Medium DOF (f-8)

**ISO:**

*ISO is the measurement of a camera’s sensor sensitivity to light.*

*When determining the exposure of a shot it is most common to adjust ISO after Aperture and Shutter Speed (Shutter Angle) are set.*

*Note: Side effect of increasing your ISO is NOISE. Pay attention to the camera’s native ISO and Dynamic Rage.*

- High ISO / Higher Brightness and Higher Noise.
- Lower ISO / Lower Brightness and lower Noise.





**THE LONG TAKE**
**THE LONG TAKE**:

The Long Take is when a filmmaker captures a scene so that it will appear as a single uninterrupted take in the edit.

How to determine the value of a long take.

- Setting (The Physical Location)
- Character (The viewer should feel as if they are the subject).
- Plot (How events affect the overall story)











**CAMERA LENSES**

**CAMERA LENSES: SPHERICAL**

*Light enters the lens and passes through the lens elements which refracts light into a focal point on an image sensor. This is where the picture is created. *

*Focal length: Distance between the optical center of a lens to the image sensor.*
*The longer the focal length the more narrow the angle of view is, and vice versa;*
*The shorter the focal length the wider the angle of view.*

Prime Lenses (Sharper and Faster/ Bokeh)
Zoom Lenses (More versatile)

- Extreme Wide Angle / Fisheye Lens (18-24mm)
- Wide Angle Lens (24-35mm)
- Standard / Normal Lens (35-50mm)
- Telephoto / Long Lens (70mm+)
- Macro Lens (Magnification Ratio 1:1 Real life / 5:1 it is 5 times bigger than real life, Min focus distance)
- Tilt Shift Lens



**CAMERA LENSES: ANAMORPHIC**

*[Anamorphic lenses can squeeze a wide image into a square, then the image is unsqueezed.*
*These days the image is unsqueezed in post-production.*

*Squeeze Factor is the Amount of horizontal compression and ranges from;*
*1.3 / 1.33 / 1.5 / 1.8 / 2x*

*Anamorphic lenses contain Anamorphic Block elements which are made of a cylindrical curve. This block could be at the center, front or rear of the lens and that's what allows it to capture a wider field of view].*

Differences between Anamorphic and Spherical Lenses
NOTE: Anamorphic lenses have more trouble focusing at close distances than spherical lenses (use diopters).

- Bokeh (Oval shapes)
- Distortion 
- Focus / Fall Off (image loses focus the further away from the image center you go) / Rolloff (difference between FG and BG)
- Focus Breathing 
- Lens Flare
- Field of View (DOF) 



**CAMERA SENSORS AND FILM SIZE**

- **⅓ INCH SENSOR 4.8x6.6mm **
- **SUPER 8mm 5.79x4.01mm **
- **½.3 INCH SENSOR 6.17x4.55mm (GoPro Hero 3, DJI Mavic)**
- **⅔ INCH BROADCAST 8.8x6.6mm (Most Studios and Live Sports cameras, easy to focus, wide range of zoom lenses).**
- **1 INCH 13.2x8.8mm (Phantom 4 Pro drones  and Pocket Cams)**
- **SUPER 16mm FILM FORMAT 12.52x7.41mm**

* **MICRO FOUR THIRDS SENSOR 17.30x13mm**

**SUPER 35mm:**

- **APS-C 22.3x14.9mm**
- **ACADEMY 35mm 22x16mm (Classic Cinema 35mm Film)**
- **SUPER 35mm FULL APERTURE 24.89x18.67mm (Hollywood Standard for both Film and Digital Cinema).**
- **35mm FULL FRAME 36x24mm (comes from still photography, DSLR Film revolution).**



**LARGE FORMAT (LF)**

- **VISTA VISION 37.72x24.92mm**
- **65mm FILM 52.51x23.07**
- **645 MEDIUM FORMAT 60x45mm**



**IMAX FORMAT**

- **70mm IMAX 70.41x52.62mm**





**LIGHTING**
**CINEMATIC LIGHTING:**

***LIGHTING*** *is one of the most important elements of filmmaking more than just illumination; lighting itself plays a massive role in visual storytelling. Lighting can help determine the MOOD of a scene, provides insight into a CHARACTER, and guides the viewer's eye. These decisions are made primarily by the DOP and Gaffer (who is the head lighting electrician in the crew). *

**TYPES OF LIGHT:**

- **Natural Light** (is any light that occurs naturally, like sunlight, moonlight, and fire light).

* **Artificial Light** (man-made light powered by electricity).

- **Ambient Lighting** (refers to any lights that are on location which the crew didn’t bring, this includes; street lamps, neon signs or the moon.

* **Practical Lighting** (refers to any light source that can be seen in the frame, whether be ambient or placed there by the Gaffer). 

- **Motivated Lighting** (means that there is a logical or reasonable justification for the light in the scene. Often practical lights exist simply to justify or motivate the light). 



How does a DP or Gaffer measure light? 

- **Lumens**: The amount of light a source produces.

* **Lux or Footcandles**: Measures how much of that light reaches a subject. (Incidental Light).

- **Reflective Light**: The amount of light that reaches the camera.

The amount of Light is dependent on both the strength of the source and its position in relation to the subject. As soon as the light leaves the source it begins to lose intensity. This is called **LIGHT FALLOFF** (the declining in light intensity with distance), and we can predict and account for this loss using an equations called The **INVERSE SQUARE LAW** (The Intensity of Light is equal to 1/ distance squared), this means that every time you double the distance away from the source the light is reduced by 75%.

[Another aspect of Light that a DOP measures is the **COLOR TEMPERATURE** which is measured in thermodynamic units called Kelvins]. 

- Daylight (is bluer than most artificial lights at about 5600 Kelvin, Daylight can also be imitated by artificial light sources with the same temperature).
- Tungsten Lights (common artificial source with a color temperature of 3200 Kelvin). 
- Mixing these two light sources can add a variety of color to your shot, with Tungsten lights adding orange and daylight adding blue.

* **COLOR TEMPERATURE (A way to describe the color of a light source, and it is one of the most important fundamentals in cinematography). K=Kelvin which is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature. We usually associate orange with worm and blue with cool, but with color temperature the opposite is true. The Hotter the temperature the more blue the light appears, the cooler the temperature the light appears more orange. **



A few Key Color temperatures used in cinema.

- **Candlelight** (1900 K)
- **Incandescent / Golden Hour** (3200 K)
- **Fluorescent** (4200 K)
- **Daylight** (5500 K)
- **Overcast** (6500 K)

	Knowing color temperature is only the first step, the next step is;

- **WHITE BALANCE** (white balance is a digital camera setting used to determine how the color temperature is registered). 

For example: once you set your white balance to a particular temperature, any light source with the same color temperature will appear as white. **WB 3200K another incandescent light 3200K** (Both lights have the same color temp. Light will appear as white).  
**WB 3200K, Daylight 5500K.** Any light source with a higher color temperature will appear cooler (meaning bluer). 
**WB 3200K, Candlelight 1900K**. Any light source with a lower color temperature will appear warmer (meaning orange).
For accurate measurement of a light’s color temperature, you can use a **COLOR TEMPERATURE METER**, or **GRAY CARD**, and **FILTERS** can also be used on the camera lens to adjust color temperature.



- **COLOR TEMPERATURE METER** (measures 5 main indexes, CRI, TLCI, TLMF, TM-30,SSI).

Each index has an OBSERVER in order to measure the quality of their score. For example CRI, TM-30 will use human vision as their observer. TLCI uses a three chip broadcast camera as the observer, SSI removes the bias of the observer altogether. 

- **CRI** (Color Rendering Index) is based upon the evaluation of 15 colors using the human eye as the observer. The first 8 colors are what the RA or CRI score is based on, and R9 to R15 are additional colors that allow you to further evaluate the quality of a light source. CRI Extended which is a score given based upon the evaluation of all 15 colors, but it is not the standard that lighting manufacturers are using when scoring their lights. CRI was designed to score a light based upon the human eye that will be able to accurately perceive colors under ideal daylight conditions. CRI is scored from 0 to 100, an RA value between 85-95 is good, above 95 exceptional. Must be careful with manufacturers that game their CRI values. To truly rate and examine and light look for CRI (Ra) Values, **R9** (Strong Red), **R13** (Light yellowish pink), **R15** (Asian Skin) with scores above 85.

* **TM-30 (Technical Memorandum 30, uses 99 colors instead of 8 and gives the ability to judge how saturated colors will look). TLCI (the observer is not the human eye but rather a 3 chip broadcast camera, TLCI looks at 18 colors, and takes into consideration that the R9 value are out of gamut of some television cameras, and therefore may not be a great color to use, when checking for color rendering, as seen by a camera instead of the human eye. TM-30 has two values Rf and Rg, as well as a color vector graphic used to indicate what colors a light source may under or over saturate. TM-30 Rf is similar to CRI Ra only in that they both measure color fidelity, and is on a scale from 0-100. TM-30 Rg is on a scale of 60-140, and with a score of 100 being more saturated and a score of less than 100 less saturated.**

- **TLCI (Television Lighting Consistency Index is based upon the evaluation of the first 18 colors of an x-rite color checker classic using a standard television 3 chip broadcast camera as the observer). It is scored between 0-100 and it is evaluated in 2 ways, one for a film style production which will be color graded later, and a broadcast style production in which live footage in which live footage will be going straight out to the viewer. TLCI assumes a Rec.709 rendering rather than a P3 Digital Cinema rendering and today’s digital cinema cameras have vastly different spectral sensitivities, and it will give you a score that can favor the rendering style of certain cameras over others.**

* **TLMF** (Television Luminaire Matching Factor is a companion metric to TLCI, unlike TLCI and CRI, is based upon a reference illuminate or a light source that you can choose from. It scores from 0-100 reading how well one light compares to another. It allows you to evaluate how two different light sources will work together on set by comparing one to another. TLMF uses all 24 patches on an x-ray color checker classic, it evaluates the gray patches to factor in color temperature and green magenta shifts between two lights.

- **SSI** (Spectral Similarity Index, eliminates the observer and similarly to TLMF compares how similar two light sources are. SSI is taking a look at the spectral distribution from 380 to 670 nanometers and taking bin measurements every 10 nanometers. SSI is scored from 0-100 with 90-100 being excellent, 80-90 being good, and 70-80 possible problems. 

**LIGHTING TERMS**: 

- **Exposure** (is the amount of Light that reaches the image sensor or film stock). The mechanisms that determine the exposure are the Aperture, Shutter Angle (Shutter Speed in Stills Photography), and ISO or ASA, or EI (Exposure Index).

	\- Aperture (is an adjustable mechanism that determines how much light enters the lens, and various sizes are measured in f-stops or T-stops in cinema which actually measure how much light actually enters the sensor since it accounts for transmission. Each stop either doubles the amount of light, or reduces it by half).

- **Contrast Ratio** ( All cinematography is a balance between light and shadow, and one of the ways this relationship is expressed is called the Contrast Ratio, how do we measure the difference between LIght and Shadow in two areas of an image, usually between the two sides of a subject’s face, or between the subject and the BG). 

* **High Key Lighting ( is a term that expresses a low contrast ratio where the background and the subject are lit evenly with minimal contrast). **

- **Low Key Lighting (uses a high contrast ratio where the difference between light and shadow is much larger with maximum contrast). **

* **Chiaroscuro** ( is a type of low-key lighting with a high contrast ratio).

- **Hard Light (is a more directional light that creates stark shadows, which works best in more dramatic or intense scenes). **

* **Soft Light (is more diffused, and generates less defined shadows, some of the best naturally occurring soft light comes during magic hour, or golden hour). **

Lighting placement in relation to the camera should also be considered. 

- **Dumb Side/ Broadside** (is lighting the side of a subject which is closer to the camera, more approachable feeling). 

* **Smart Side/Short Side (refers to lighting the side of a subject that is not facing the camera, more dramatic look).**

- **Lens Flares (are created when light hits the lens, the shapes and colors of which differ depending on the lens).**

* **Bokeh** (are out-of-focus elements in a shot, typically points of light that often add a romantic or painterly texture to the image). 



**LIGHTING GEAR**: 

- **Tungsten Lights (powerful with a warm color temperature).**

* **HMI Lights (used to archive daylight, with a stronger and cooler color temperature). **

- **Fluorescent Lights (offer soft cool light).**

* **Kino Flos** (banks of tube lights, adjustable to various temperatures).

- **LED Lights** (provide a high amount of control over color and strength). 

For more control over a light color Gaffers will often use **GELS**, thin plastic sheets or transparent material which in an assortment of colors and used to modify the color of a light source. Used in concert with a light’s color temperature, gels help cinematographers achieve their desired hues. You can use CTB (Color Temperature Blue) to add more blue, CTO (Color Temperature Orange) to add more orange, CTS (Color Temperature Straw) very similar to CTO but adds more of a golden yellow tint. All gels come with a variety of strengths.

- A **LIGHT METER** is used to measure the amount of incidental lighting hitting a subject which then informs the exposure settings on the camera, and some models also include a SPOT METER (reads the brightness of light that reflects off an object), which allows to pinpoint an exact part of the image for exposure. Many cameras also have different modes to measure the reflective light actually reaching the lens.

* **LIGHT METER** (when setting the aperture to the meter reading of an object, that object will appear at 18% middle gray on screen, first take a meter reading of your subject which will give you a 18% middle gray value, but this is not the correct exposure yet, then take a reading of a 18% middle gray card, now you can effectively measure the difference between the gray card and the subject’s skin tones, by effectively opening up or closing down the aperture by the difference in stops, the light meter is giving you the result of 18% middle gray, and you need to find the difference between 18% middle gray and your subjects skin tone, and that’s how you compensate for exposure). 1 Stop of light either doubles / halves the amount of light. Each stop is 2 times brighter than the stop below it, and vice versa. 

Other ways to measure lighting ratios include; **WAVEFORMS**, **HISTOGRAMS**, **FALSE COLOR**.

- **DIFFUSION (semi-translucent material placed between a light source and the subject, this scatters the light making it softer. There are a few methods to diffuse the light).**

\- **Softboxes** (use translucent cloths placed in front of a light).
\- **Diffusion Paper**
\- **Silks** (often used to diffuse larger sources)
\- **Clouds, Fog, Dust, Smoke** (natural diffusers)
\- **Reflectors** (bouncing the light with reflectors creates diffusion while also redirecting light, reflectors come in a variety of colors and textures, each bringing a unique type of diffusion). **BEAD BOARDS** are styrofoam boards with imperfect surifices, that scatter light differently than a piece of **FOAM CORE**, which bounces light more evenly.

\- **Neutral Density Gels** (used to mitigate the intensity of the light, these can be attached to the light or applied to windows to reduce the sunlight).

\- **Flags** (are opaque boards that shape and block unwanted light).

\- **Barn Doors** (are adjustable flaps on the light itself  which have a similar function to flags).

\- **Egg Crates** (direct light and help prevent it from spilling into unwanted areas). 

\- **Cookies** (add texture to a light, short for the term CUCOLORIS, cookies are boards with patterns cut into them that create a dappled effect when placed in front of a light).

\- **Light Stands** (a stand used for mounting lights).
\- **C-stands** (a stand used for mounting lights, flags, diffusion, reflectors, and other lighting and grip gear). 



**CINEMATIC LIGHTING PT.2:**

**SINGLE SUBJECT**

- **3 Point Lighting / Rembrandt** (includes a KEY light which is the main source of light, FILL light that fills the shadows created by the KEY, BACKLIGHT separates the subject from BG)
- **Negative Fill (**is the process of blocking any unwanted fill light)
- **Backlight Types** 
  - Edge Lights / Kickers, focus on a specific area of the subject
  - Hair Lights, lights angled down towards subjects hair to create highlights
  - Catchlights / Eyelights, small reflections of lights in the eyes to give depth
- **Butterfly Lighting / Paramount**, used a 2 lighting setup with a large source in front of the subject at a slightly higher angle. It is used to smooth imperfections, and for flattering shots.
- **Loop Lighting**, similar to butterfly but angled at 45’ and just above the eyeline, lengthens the face of the subject.
- **Split Lighting**, key light hitting half of the subject without a fill light
- **Overhead & underlighting **



**MULTIPLE SUBJECTS**

- Cross Key Lighting / Backcross Lighting, lights positioned behind the actors act as a key for one character and a backlight for the other.

**EXTERIOR DAY**
	Avoid shooting with the sun directly on the subject's face. Place the subject with their backs to the sun, so that the sun can bounce on the faces more softly, and the sun can also act as a backlight. You can also add bounce boards, and overhead diffusion to control light further.

**EXTERIOR NIGHT**

- Creating a baselight with a non directional light to make sure nothing is completely lost in black shadows.
- To achieve moonlight you can utilize moon cubes, a large box filled with heavy diffusion. Moonlight tends to be at around 4100K.

**INTERIOR DAY**
**INTERIOR NIGHT**

**SPLIT SCREEN**

**SPLIT SCREENS:** can be both visible or invisible (cloning an actor, or selecting a different performance by an actor).

- Multiple Perspectives: It can be used to showcase multiple perspectives, two characters living different lives etc.
- Character Relationships: it can be used to showcase a relationship between multiple characters.

A SPLIT DIOPTER has a similar effect to a visible split screen as it creates a visual split between multiple planes within a frame.

**EDITING**

**EDITING TRANSITIONS:**

**CUT** (Instant switch or transitions from one shot to another, or from one scene to the next).

- **FADE (When a shot dissolves to or from a solid color, usually black or white).**

\- FADE FROM BLACK (is a common way to open a film as it eases the audience into the beginning of the story).
\- FADE TO BLACK(can give a gradual sense of closure at the end, like opening and closing a book. A Fade to Black in the middle of a film is like the end of a chapter).
**-** DIP TO BLACK(fade in or out of shots within the same scene as a stylistic choice).
\- FADE TO WHITE **(**represents a character entering a dream or dying). 

- **DISSOLVE (fade into another shot, traditionally dissolves are used to suggest a longer passage of time between scenes or shots within the same scene, or to signal a memory or a dream).**

	\- Superimposition (two shots fade together creating a third one).

- **MATCH CUT (is any transition audio or visual that uses elements from the previous scene to match similar elements in the next, it could be shapes, compositions, colors, movement, or sound. THE MATCH CUT connects the two shots instantly).**

When match cutting between faces the assumption is that we are seeing the same person at two different points in their lives.
\- MATCH DISSOLVE (combination between a match cut and a dissolve, it has the same function as a match cut but more gradually).

- **IRIS (opening or closing of the iris or aperture, it was commonly used as a fade in early cinema).**
- **WIPE (a wipe transition is when shot A is replaced with shot B as it moves or wipes into frame from a specific direction like up, down, left, right or diagonal).**
- **PASSING (often used to hide the cut), (passing transition or pass-by effect has a moving character or object to transition into the next scene, or has the camera itself move past the object). **
- **WHIP PAN (or swish pan, is a quick horizontal camera camera rotation that blurs the image commonly used mid-scene, it can also be used as a scene transition).**
- **SMASH CUT (a smash cut is a sharp abrupt cut from one scene to another using high contrast in both visuals and audio).**
- **J-CUT / L-CUT (primary audio transition)**

\- J-CUT or Prelap (is when the audio of the next scene precedes the image, the audience hears the audio of scene B while seeing scene A).
\- L-CUT (the audio from a preceding scene carries over to the following scene, often used for narration).

**EDITING TECHNIQUES:**

Almost all of an editor's work comes down to three choices; what to show, when to cut and what to cut to.

**CUTAWAY** (cutting away from the main action).

- **EYELINE (eyeline match is when an editor cuts to the object of a character’s attention, it’s the character’s eyes that motivate the cut).**

		INSERT SHOT (a shot of a specific prop or detail within a scene).

- **CROSS CUTTING (cross cutting is when an editor cuts between two or more scenes happening in different locations usually at the same time. It is an effective way to combine multilayered action as well).**
- **EYE TRACE (eye trace is when an editor cuts between two or more shots that focus on the same area of the frame, this allows the viewer's eyes and attention to stay focused without having to scan the frame after each cut, this can also be used with blocking and camera movement).**
- **SPLIT EDIT (J-CUT or L-CUT) **

	\- J-CUT (is when audio from a shot begins to play before we see it).
	\- L-CUT (audio from a shot plays after we’ve already cut away).

- I**NTELLECTUAL MONTAGE** (puts seemingly unrelated images together in order to create a certain feeling or idea, this type of montage makes use of the Kuleshov effect which refers to creating meaning out of cinematic juxtaposition).
- **CUT ON ACTION (cutting on action refers to cutting during a character or object’s movement, often found in fight scenes because it lends itself to fast paced rhythm and quick movements, usually cutting on impact).**





**EDITING: CUTS AND TRANSITIONS**



**CUTS:**

- **CUTTING ON ACTION** (cutting from one shot to another while the subject is still in motion).
- **CUT AWAY** (cutting to an insert shot of something and back).
- **CROSS CUT** (editor intercuts back and forth between locations).
- **JUMP CUT** (editor cuts between the same shot, often used to deliberately show the passing of time, often finding them in montages. Jump cuts are also used to add a level of urgency to the scene).
- **MATCH CUT (a match cut cuts from one shot to a similar shot by either matching the action or the composition, they are mainly used as scene transitions).**

**TRANSITIONS:**

		**- FADE IN / FADE OUT** (dissolving in or to from black).
		\- **DISSOLVE** (is when you blend one shot to another).
		\- **SMASH CUT** (abrupt transitions).
		\- **IRIS**
		**- WIPE**
		**- INVISIBLE CUT** (cuts are hidden in blackness)
			\- Whip Pan
			\- Passing
		\- **L-CUT** (audio from the current shot carries over to the next shot)
		\- **J-CUT** (audio from the next scene starts before you get to it)

**ADVANCED FILMMAKING TECHNIQUES**

**CONTRAST**:

Contrast is to visuals what conflict is to a script. 
There is Contrast in;

- **Tone** (means Brightness) (1. Plan out the Tonal range. 2. Integrate into storyboard). 

\- Lighting (How you light the scene, High contrast and shadows or flat low contrast look).
\- Exposure (Camera exposure is how much light you allow into the camera, crashing the blacks or blowing it out).
\- Art Direction (How much tonal difference there is in SET DRESSING, PROPS, WARDROBE).

- **Production Design** (Overall visual look of the production).

	\- Set Design
	\- Props
	\- Wardrobe
Production design sets; a scene’s Mood, it can reflect the state of a character (or internal state), It articulates a story’s themes 

(PD can be used to communicate a deeper meaning behind the images THE SUBTEXT).

- **Blocking** (Performance Blocking is where you place your actors in the frame).

There are three elements a filmmaker should think about when blocking a scene.

- SPACE (How Visual contrast is created in the space to portray tension and importance).
- SHAPES (There are 3 basic shapes; circles, squares, and triangles.) 

	\- Circles feel safe and inclusive
	\- Squares create limited space, boxing someone in.
	\- Triangles are sharp, they feel aggressive, but it also has an Apex

- LINES (represent power dynamics within the characters).

**Use SUBTEXT** and **CONTRAST** (to contrast what the character is saying compared to what he’s doing).

- **Camera Movement (Directing the Camera)**

\- The Pan / Whip Pan (equivalent to turning to see something, it creates a jolt of energy, conversely a slow pan gives the time to take in the landscape).
\- The Tilt (it reveals something, redirecting our attention).
\- The Zoom (can be used for comedic effect because of it’s sudden nature, or for dramatic effect, slow zoom such as in Thrillers and Horror films).
\- The Dolly (smooth movement the camera pushes in or out towards a subject or an object).
\- The Pedestal (can reveal the stakes of a scene or be used for narrative effect).
\- The Crane or Boom shot (uses a larger range of motion).
\- The Steadicam / Gimbal (Glides within a space compared to a dolly).
\- The Handheld (camera moves within the space with a raw shaky feeling that creates anxiety in the viewer).
\- The Rack Focus (by racking focus you bring something to the viewers attention).

The most important take is to **COMBINE CAMERA MOVES** because all we are doing is to direct the audience towards the **POINT OF ATTENTION** (we are directing the audience's eye to something).



- **Color (Elicits emotion and has a psychological effect on people).**

There are 3 factors in determining color;

- HUE (the color itself)

	\- Monochromatic scheme (the movie is one color)
	\- Analogous colors (neighboring colors in a color wheel).
\- Complementary colors (colors sitting at the opposite ends of a color wheel).
\- Triadic colors

- SATURATION (the intensity of the color)
- BRIGHTNESS (how light or dark the color is).